13 Sophistical Refutations, Aristotle

 

1.    Accent: false emphasis 

False news neglects all positive attributes and events for the opposition while emphasizing events and characteristics of the favored political party. 

2.    Amphibole: structure has more than one meaning

Covering an event for the opposition in a way that offers a negative interpretation

3.    Equivocation: word has more than one meaning

Same strategy as the ambiguous sentence, choosing words that have an element of truth but carry an easy negative meaning

4.    Composition: if A is X and B is X, then the group to which A and B belong are all X

5.    Division: X has Y, P is like X so P also has Y – 

Most common false news assertion

6.    Figure of Speech: same word, different meaning

An easy path to ambiguity

7.    Accident: X is explained by rule Y, but X does not fall under rule Y — most common structure of current false new

8.    Affirming the Consequent: if A is true, then B is true. Therefore A is true. — common

9.    In a Certain Respect: A is an attribute of B. So, A is an attribute of C

10.  Missing the Point (ignorance of refutation): statements lead to conclusion X. Yet conclusion Y is drawn

11.  Begging the Question: if A is not wrong, then A is right. 

12.  False Cause: asserting that A causes B when only a correlation between A Nd B exists. (Sleep apnea/ AF)

13. Many Questions: overwhelms the opposition